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Chapter 9. Kings And Chronicles The Mughal Courts (C. Sixteenth- Seventeenth Centuries)
The rulers of the Mughal Empire believed their authority was divinely granted to govern a vast and diverse population. This vision, though sometimes limited by practical politics, was important for legitimizing their rule. One way the Mughals communicated this vision was by commissioning court historians to write dynastic histories, known as chronicles.
These chronicles recorded events of the emperor's reign and compiled information from across the subcontinent to aid governance. Modern historians use the term "chronicles" for these texts because they provide a continuous chronological record of events. Chronicles are essential sources for studying the Mughal Empire, offering factual information about state institutions and reflecting how imperial ideologies were created and spread.
The Mughals And Their Empire
The name "Mughal" is derived from "Mongol," although the rulers preferred the term Timurids, tracing their lineage from the Turkish ruler Timur (Tamerlane) on their father's side. Babur, the first Mughal emperor, was related to Ghenghiz Khan through his mother but viewed Mongols as barbaric. Europeans in the 16th century used "Mughal" to describe this Indian dynasty.
The empire was established through conquests and alliances with local Indian chieftains. Zahiruddin Babur, driven from his homeland in Central Asia, first established himself in Kabul and then invaded the Indian subcontinent in 1526, defeating the Delhi Sultanate.
His successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (reigned 1530-40, 1555-56), expanded the empire but was defeated by Sher Shah Sur and exiled to Iran. Humayun regained the empire in 1555 but died shortly after.
Jalaluddin Akbar (reigned 1556-1605) is considered the greatest Mughal emperor. He not only expanded the empire to the Hindukush but also consolidated it, making it a formidable power. Akbar's successors, Jahangir (1605-27), Shah Jahan (1628-58), and Aurangzeb (1658-1707), continued expansion at a slower pace and strengthened governance structures.
During the 16th and 17th centuries, the Mughals developed a complex imperial structure with effective administration and taxation methods. The court was the visible center of power, where alliances were formed and status defined. The Mughal political system blended military strength with a conscious policy of accommodating diverse traditions in the subcontinent.
After Aurangzeb's death in 1707, the dynasty's power declined, and regional powers gained autonomy. However, the symbolic prestige of the Mughal ruler persisted until 1857 when the British deposed the last emperor, Bahadur Shah Zafar II.
Chaghtai Turks: Descendants of Ghengiz Khan's eldest son, from whom the Mughals traced paternal lineage.
The Production Of Chronicles
Mughal chronicles were commissioned by emperors to project an image of an enlightened kingdom and legitimize their rule. They aimed to convey the futility of resistance and provide a record for future generations. Authors were court insiders, focusing on the ruler, court, nobles, wars, and administration. Titles (Akbar Nama, Shahjahan Nama) reflected the history of the empire being synonymous with the emperor.
From Turkish To Persian
Mughal court chronicles were written in Persian. Under the Delhi Sultanate, Persian was the court language alongside local languages. As Timurids, the Mughals' mother tongue was Turkish; Babur wrote in Turkish (his memoirs, poetry).
Akbar made Persian the official court language, influenced by cultural contacts with Iran and Iranian/Central Asian migrants. Persian became a language of empire, conferring prestige. It was used by the royal family, elite, and administration at all levels.
Persian vocabulary influenced official records in regional languages. Interaction with Indian languages led to Indianised Persian and the emergence of Urdu.
Mughal chronicles like Akbar Nama were in Persian. Others, like Babur's memoirs, were translated into Persian (Babur Nama). Sanskrit texts like the Mahabharata and Ramayana were also translated into Persian (Mahabharata as Razmnama).
The Making Of Manuscripts
Books in Mughal India were handwritten manuscripts. Production centered in the imperial kitabkhana (scriptorium/library). Many people were involved: paper makers, scribes/calligraphers (copying text), gilders (illuminating pages), painters (illustrating scenes), bookbinders (assembling folios into covers). Finished manuscripts were precious objects reflecting intellectual wealth and beauty, symbolizing the emperor's power and patronage.
Calligraphers and painters held high social status and received recognition (titles, awards), while other artisans (paper makers, bookbinders) remained mostly anonymous. Calligraphy was a highly valued art. Akbar favored the nastaliq style (fluid, long strokes), written with a reed pen (qalam) and ink. The split nib of the qalam helped absorb ink.
The Painted Image
Painters were integral to producing Mughal manuscripts. Alongside text, illustrations visually depicted events from the emperor's reign (battles, hunts, court scenes). Scribes left blank spaces for paintings, which were executed separately and inserted. These miniature paintings enhanced beauty and were believed to convey ideas about the kingdom's power beyond written words.
Source 1: Excerpt from Abu’l Fazl in praise of taswir (painting).
Abu’l Fazl highly regards painting (taswir), which draws likeness. Akbar from early youth preferred it, encouraged it for study/amusement. Many painters employed. Weekly supervision, emperors view work, give reward/salary increase for excellence. Excellent painters, masterpieces comparable to Bihzad/European painters. Minuteness, finish, boldness incomparable. Even inanimate objects look alive. >100 painters famous masters, Hindu artists exceptional, pictures surpass conception, few equal globally.
Answer:
Abu’l Fazl considered the art of painting important for several reasons: he saw it as a means of both study (observation, understanding the world) and amusement for the emperor. He also believed it had the power to depict reality with such detail and skill that even inanimate objects seemed alive, highlighting the mastery of the artists. Most significantly, he praised its ability to create masterpieces comparable to renowned artists elsewhere and highlighted the exceptional skill of Hindu artists. He sought to legitimize this art form, which faced opposition from some orthodox Muslims, by emphasizing the emperor's personal predilection for it, the systematic state patronage (weekly review, rewards, salary increases), and by arguing that an artist's inability to truly *bestow life* on their work actually leads them to recognise God's unique power of creation, thus framing painting not as an act of blasphemy but as a means to appreciate the divine.
The production of paintings portraying living beings, especially the emperor and his court, was a source of tension with representatives of the Muslim orthodoxy (ulama). They cited Islamic prohibition of depicting living beings (enshrined in Qur'an/hadis), arguing it was an artist's attempt to usurp God's power of creation.
However, interpretations of shari‘a varied. Rulers in many Asian regions, including Safavid kings in Iran (known for patronizing fine artists), regularly commissioned portraits and life scenes. Artists from Iran migrated to Mughal India seeking patronage. Akbar's court historian Abu'l Fazl quoted Akbar saying he disliked those who hate painting; he believed an artist, by recognizing their inability to bestow life, is led to acknowledge God.
The Akbar Nama And The Badshah Nama
Two major illustrated Mughal chronicles are the Akbar Nama and the Badshah Nama (Chronicle of a King). Each contained around 150 paintings. Abu’l Fazl, the author of the Akbar Nama, was a scholar of diverse fields, a forceful debater, and an independent thinker who opposed conservative ulama, making him an ideal advisor and spokesperson for Akbar's policies, including the objective of freeing the state from religious orthodoxy.
Abu’l Fazl worked on the Akbar Nama for 13 years (from 1589), revising it repeatedly. It draws on records, official documents, and oral testimonies. It is divided into three books: the first two are chronicles (history from Adam to Akbar's 46th regnal year), and the third is the Ain-i Akbari (compendium of regulations and gazetteer).
The Akbar Nama aimed to be both a traditional chronological history of political events and a synchronic (at a specific time) picture of the empire's geography, society, administration, and culture. The Ain-i Akbari presents the empire as diverse and composite. Abu’l Fazl's ornate Indo-Persian writing style was influential.
Abdul Hamid Lahori, a pupil of Abu’l Fazl, authored the Badshah Nama, commissioned by Emperor Shah Jahan as an official history of his reign, modeled on the Akbar Nama. It covers the first two decades of Shah Jahan's rule in three volumes (daftars).
During the colonial period, British administrators studied these chronicles to understand India. The Asiatic Society of Bengal published edited versions (19th century); Henry Beveridge translated the Akbar Nama into English (early 20th century). Only excerpts of the Badshah Nama are translated; the full text awaits English translation.
Diachronic vs. Synchronic: Diachronic traces developments over time. Synchronic describes a situation at a specific point in time.
Travels of the Badshah Nama: Precious manuscripts were diplomatic gifts. The Nawab of Awadh gifted the illustrated Badshah Nama to King George III (1799). Preserved in the English Royal Collections, conservation work (1994) allowed its paintings to be exhibited for the first time in 1997.
The Ideal Kingdom
Mughal court chroniclers used various narratives and symbols to portray the emperor's power as divinely bestowed and the empire as an ideal realm.
A Divine Light
A legend of Mongol queen Alanqua impregnated by a ray of sunshine depicted Mughal rulers as descendants carrying Divine Light. Abu’l Fazl placed Mughal kingship highest in receiving this light (farr-i izadi), influenced by Sufi idea of Divine Light transmitted to the king (Shihabuddin Suhrawardi). Paintings (from 17th century) visually conveyed this by showing emperors with halos, borrowed from European depictions of Christ/Mary, symbolizing divine light.
Fig. 9.5 description: Painting by Abu’l Hasan shows Jahangir in resplendent clothes/jewels, holding portrait of father Akbar (in white, sufi tradition enlightened soul). Akbar offers globe (dynastic authority symbol). No law for succession; dynastic change by fratricidal war. Prince Salim (Jahangir) revolted, seized power late in Akbar's reign.
Answer:
This painting describes the relationship between father and son in a highly symbolic and idealized manner. Jahangir, the son, is shown holding up a portrait of his father, Akbar, which symbolizes reverence, continuity of lineage, and possibly seeking the father's approval or blessing. The act of holding up the portrait elevates Akbar, placing him in a position of honor and importance even after his death. Akbar, in the portrait, is offering a globe to Jahangir. This action visually represents the transfer of dynastic authority and control over the empire ("the world") from father to son. Despite the historical reality of conflict between Salim (Jahangir) and Akbar, the painting portrays a harmonious and legitimate succession, emphasizing the father's deliberate bestowal of power upon the son. Mughal artists frequently portrayed emperors against dark or dull backgrounds to make the brightly dressed figures and their jewels stand out more prominently, highlighting their splendor and importance. The sources of light in this painting appear to be the halos around both emperors' heads, symbolizing divine light, and the natural light illuminating the figures and the objects (jewels, globe, clothes).
A Unifying Force
Mughal chronicles presented the emperor as a unifying force above diverse communities (Hindus, Jainas, Zoroastrians, Muslims), ensuring justice and peace. The ideal of sulh-i kul (absolute peace) was cornerstone of enlightened rule – freedom of expression for all religions if they didn't challenge state authority or fight amongst themselves.
This ideal was implemented through policies: composite nobility (various ethnic/religious groups), abolition of pilgrimage tax (1563) and jizya (1564) (taxes based on religious discrimination). Grants were given for building/maintaining places of worship, even repairing destroyed temples (Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb). However, Aurangzeb later reimposed jizya.
Just Sovereignty As Social Contract
Abu’l Fazl defined sovereignty as a social contract: emperor protects subjects' life (jan), property (mal), honour (namus), faith (din). In return, subjects obey and share resources. Only just sovereigns, guided by power/Divine guidance, could honor this contract.
Symbols represented justice as a key virtue: motif of lion and lamb together (harmony between strong/weak), placed near throne (Fig. 9.6). Jahangir installed a Chain of Justice (pure gold, 30 gaz, 60 bells) for the oppressed to shake and gain attention.
Fig. 9.6 description: Painting by Payag shows Shah Jahan honoring Prince Aurangzeb before wedding. Emperor gives something to Aurangzeb. Aurangzeb in yellow jama, green jacket. Gesture suggests acceptance/submission. Courtiers stand around. Figures with big turbans (left) scholars. Scene from Badshah Nama.
Answer:
The painting depicts Shah Jahan in a central, elevated position, signifying his authority. Aurangzeb is positioned before him, receiving an object (likely a jewel or blessing) from the emperor. Aurangzeb's gesture, with hands folded or in a respectful posture, suggests submission and acceptance of his father's favor or directive. The courtiers are arranged hierarchically, with higher-ranking nobles closer to the emperor. Figures with large turbans on the left are indeed likely scholars, often part of the imperial court. The overall scene conveys the formality and hierarchy of the Mughal court during a significant family and state occasion (the prince's wedding), emphasizing the emperor's central role in bestowing honor and blessings.
Capitals And Courts
Capital Cities
The Mughal emperors frequently shifted their capital cities (Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Lahore, Shahjahanabad/Delhi) during the 16th and 17th centuries. This allowed them to assert control over different regions or pursue personal building passions.
- Babur took over Agra (Lodi capital).
- Akbar built Fatehpur Sikri (near Ajmer pilgrimage center, signifying relationship with Chishti Sufis; Buland Darwaza symbolized victory in Gujarat).
- Akbar transferred capital to Lahore (1585) for frontier control.
- Shah Jahan built a new capital, Shahjahanabad (Delhi), a planned city with Red Fort, Jama Masjid, Chandni Chowk, noble residences (1648), reflecting a grand monarchical vision. Building activity was a sign of dynastic power, wealth, prestige, and an act of piety for Muslim rulers.
The Mughal Court
The physical layout of the court, centered on the emperor's throne (takht), symbolized his status as the axis mundi (support of the world). The canopy over the throne also symbolized kingship.
Court hierarchy and status were strictly defined by proximity to the emperor. Rules governed address, courtesies, and speech. The slightest breach of etiquette was punished.
Source 2: Excerpt from Abu’l Fazl’s description of Akbar’s darbar (court assembly).
Akbar holds court (darbar) daily. Drum beats with Divine praise announce it; all classes notified. Sons, grandchildren, grandees, nobles, others attend to make kornish (ceremonial salutation), stand in place. Learned men, skilled mechanics pay respects. Justice officers report. Emperor gives orders, settles things. Gladiators, wrestlers, singers (male/female), jugglers, tumblers ready to perform/show skill.
Answer:
This description provides a vivid picture of the daily life and activities within Akbar's court. It shows that the darbar was a highly structured and formal event, beginning with a ceremonial announcement (drum beats, Divine praise) to notify everyone. Key activities included: formal attendance and salutation (kornish) by royalty, nobles, and officials; presentation of reports by officers of justice; the emperor actively giving orders and settling matters; intellectual engagement (learned men paying respects); presence of skilled workers (mechanics) and artists (singers, jugglers, tumblers); and performances by gladiators and wrestlers. This illustrates the court as a place for governance (justice, administration), display of power (hierarchy, obedience rituals), cultural exchange (learned men, artists), entertainment, and maintaining contact with various segments of society (people of all classes notified, implying their potential access or connection to the court's activities).
Forms of salutation indicated status: deeper prostration (sijda - complete prostration) for higher status. Under Shah Jahan, rituals like chahar taslim (four bows) and zaminbos (kissing ground) were used.
Diplomatic protocols were explicit; envoys had to offer acceptable greetings. Thomas Roe's simple bow and request for a chair surprised the court.
Emperor's day: Sunrise prayers, then jharoka darshan (appearance on balcony facing east) for public view (popular faith element introduced by Akbar for broader acceptance). After an hour, attended diwan-i am (public audience hall) for government business, then diwan-i khas (private audience hall) for confidential matters, petitions, accounts, viewing art/building plans.
Special occasions (accession anniversary, Id, Shab-i barat, Holi, Nauroz) were celebrated lavishly. Monarch's birthdays included being weighed against commodities for charity (jashn-i wazn or tula dan).
Titles And Gifts
Grand titles (Shahenshah, Jahangir, Shah Jahan) were adopted at coronation/after victory, creating awe. Titles for men of merit indicated court hierarchy. Asaf Khan (high minister) title from Prophet Sulaiman's minister. Mirza Raja title for high-ranking nobles (Jai Singh, Jaswant Singh). Titles could be earned or paid for (Mir Khan paying for 'A' in name).
Awards included robe of honour (khilat), sarapa (head-to-foot garment), jewelled ornaments (padma murassa for exceptional service).
Courtiers offered gifts (nazr - small sum, peshkash - large sum) to the emperor. Gifts in diplomatic relations were a sign of honour/respect. Thomas Roe's ring returned for being too cheap highlights gift symbolism.
The Imperial Household
The "harem" (Persian: sacred place) refers to the Mughal domestic world: emperor's wives (begams - royal birth, aghas - noble birth), concubines (aghacha - lowest status), relatives (mother, sisters, daughters, etc.), female servants/slaves. Polygamy was common among ruling groups.
Marriage cemented political relationships/alliances. Gift of daughter in marriage accompanied territory gift, ensuring hierarchical links. Marriage created vast kinship networks, holding empire together.
Status within household: Begams (royal birth, large dower, higher status/attention) > Aghas (other wives, noble birth) > Aghachas (concubines, lowest status). All received allowances/gifts based on status. Status could change; agha/aghacha could become begam depending on husband's will/motherhood (if <4 wives). Love/motherhood elevated women's status.
Numerous male/female slaves in household. Tasks varied from mundane to skilled. Slave eunuchs (khwajasara) guarded/served household, acted as agents for women in commerce.
Mughal queens/princesses (Nur Jahan, Jahanara, Roshanara) controlled significant financial resources (annual income, revenues from ports like Surat). Control over resources enabled commissioning buildings/gardens. Jahanara involved in Shahjahanabad projects (caravanserai, Chandni Chowk bazaar).
Gulbadan Begum's Humayun Nama provides insight into domestic life, including conflicts among princes/kings and mediating role of elderly women. She wrote memoirs for Abu’l Fazl's Akbar Nama, describing conflicts and tensions, not just eulogizing emperors.
Fig. 9.14 description: Painting from the Akbar Nama shows birth of Prince Salim at Fatehpur Sikri. Women engaged in various activities: midwives, musicians, servants bringing gifts, cooking, washing, attending to the mother and baby, women in purdah enclosures. Men depicted outside or in limited roles.
Answer:
The painting depicts the lively and bustling scene surrounding a significant event in the imperial household: the birth of a prince. Activities shown include: midwives attending to the mother and baby, musicians performing, servants carrying gifts and supplies (food, clothes), cooking and washing, women engaged in conversation and attending to other tasks, and some women observing from within purdah enclosures. Men are shown outside the immediate domestic space, possibly participating in related ceremonies or activities separate from the women's quarters. Based on the tasks being performed, identified members of the imperial establishment depicted include: the empress (mother of the prince, though likely idealized), the prince (newborn), midwives, female servants and slaves (performing domestic, caretaking, and carrying tasks), female musicians and performers, and possibly other female relatives observing or assisting. The scene highlights the important roles of women within the imperial household, particularly during events centered around procreation and domestic life, and the division of space and activity along gender lines (women's quarters). It also shows the presence of diverse staff and the celebratory atmosphere surrounding the birth.
The Imperial Officials
Mughal chronicles often portray the emperor as the sole source of power, with the empire simply following orders. However, the state apparatus relied on various institutions and officers to function effectively.
Recruitment And Rank
A key pillar was the corps of officers (nobility), recruited from diverse ethnic and religious groups (Turani, Iranian, Afghans, Rajputs, Deccanis, Indian Muslims). This diversity aimed to prevent any single faction from challenging state authority. The nobility was described as a "bouquet of flowers" held together by loyalty to the emperor.
Two Indian groups (Rajputs, Indian Muslims) entered imperial service from 1560s. Raja Bharmal Kachhwaha of Amber was early Rajput noble, linked by marriage to Akbar. Educated Hindus (like Raja Todar Mal) were promoted. Iranians gained high offices under Jahangir (Nur Jahan's influence). Aurangzeb appointed Rajputs and Marathas.
Officeholders held mansabs (ranks) with two numbers: zat (position/salary) and sawar (horsemen to maintain). 1000+ zat ranked as nobles (umara).
Nobles participated in campaigns with their armies, served as provincial officers. Recruited, equipped, trained cavalry (main army striking arm). Troopers maintained superior horses (branded with imperial mark dagh).
Emperor reviewed changes in rank/titles/postings (except lowest). Akbar designed mansab system, also established spiritual relations with select nobles (treating them as disciples murid).
Imperial service offered power, wealth, reputation. Petitions for service (tajwiz) through nobles to emperor. Mir bakhshi (paymaster general) presented candidates, prepared orders.
Source 3: Jesuit priest Antonio Monserrate’s observation on Akbar making himself accessible to nobles.
Monserrate noted how accessible Akbar made himself for audience to common people/nobles almost daily. Endeavors to be pleasant/affable rather than severe. Remarkable effect of this courtesy/affability in attaching him to subjects' minds.
Answer:
Father Monserrate's observation in Source 3 suggests that despite their high ranks and perceived dignity, the Mughal emperor (Akbar) exercised absolute authority over his officials, treating them like "slaves" by summoning them and issuing "imperious commands." This highlights that the relationship was fundamentally one of master and servant, with the emperor holding ultimate power to command obedience regardless of the noble's exalted status. It shows that rank within the nobility was entirely dependent on the emperor's will and favor, and that even the highest-ranking officials were expected to show complete submission and could be commanded in ways that might be considered below their dignity, but they had to obey.
Other important ministers: diwan-i ala (finance minister), sadr-us sudur (minister of grants/judges). Three ministers advised but were independent. Akbar shaped administrative, fiscal, monetary institutions.
Nobles at court (tainat-i rakab) were reserve force, twice daily submission, guarded emperor.
Tajwiz: Noble's petition to emperor recommending someone for mansabdar recruitment.
Information And Empire
Mughal administration emphasized detailed record keeping. Mir bakhshi supervised court writers (waqia nawis) recording proceedings, applications, imperial orders (farman). Agents (wakil) of nobles/rulers recorded court proceedings ("News from the Exalted Court" Akhbarat-i Darbar-i Mualla) with date/time.
Akhbarat contained diverse information (attendance, grants, titles, missions, presents, emperor's health inquiries). Valuable for public/private lives history.
News/documents traveled by imperial post (round-the-clock runners qasid or pathmar with papers in bamboo containers). Emperor received reports from distant provinces fast. Agents of nobles/tributary rulers copied announcements, sent contents to masters.
Surprisingly rapid information loop for public news connected empire.
Beyond The Centre: Provincial Administration
Central division of functions replicated in provinces (subas) with corresponding subordinates (diwan, bakhshi, sadr). Head: governor (subadar) reporting to emperor.
Subas divided into sarkars (districts), overlapping with faujdars' (commandants) jurisdiction (heavy cavalry, musketeers). Local administration at pargana (sub-district) by qanungo (revenue records), chaudhuri (revenue collection), qazi (local judge).
Administration departments had large support staff (clerks, accountants, auditors, messengers) - technically qualified, standardized rules/procedures, generated copious written records.
Persian was language of administration; local languages for village accounts.
Chroniclers portrayed emperor controlling apparatus down to village; in reality, tension existed between zamindars and representatives over authority/resources. Zamindars mobilized peasant support against state sometimes.
Beyond The Frontiers
Chroniclers used high-sounding titles (Shahenshah, Jahangir, Shah Jahan) to assert emperors' claims to control. Histories also recorded diplomatic relations/conflicts with neighbors, reflecting political rivalry.
The Safavids And Qandahar
Relations with Safavids (Iran) and Turan hinged on controlling Hindukush frontier (between Afghanistan, Iran, Central Asia). Controlling strategic outposts (Kabul, Qandahar) was key to ward off invasion danger.
Qandahar was contested. Humayun held it, Akbar reconquered (1595). Safavid court maintained relations but claimed Qandahar. Jahangir's diplomatic mission (1613) failed. Persian army besieged/took Qandahar (1622).
Fig. 9.16 description: Miniature records Jahangir commissioned artist Abu’l Hasan to paint recent dream. Scene: Jahangir/Safavid Shah Abbas friendly embrace. Both in traditional costumes. Shah figure based on portraits (Bishandas on 1613 embassy). Authenticity sense for fictional scene (never met). Painting carefully: Jahangir/Shah Abbas relationship shown? Physique/postures compared? Animals stand for? Map suggest?
Answer:
The painting depicts an idealized, harmonious relationship between Jahangir and Shah Abbas, symbolized by their friendly embrace. Their physique and postures might be subtly used to suggest relative dominance or power, though the embrace itself aims to convey equality and cordiality. The animals depicted (e.g., lion and lamb motif) might symbolize peace, harmony, or the idea of a just ruler presiding over a realm where strength and weakness coexist peacefully. The map in the background appears to show a vast territory or perhaps both empires, suggesting the rulers' shared dominance over large domains or a desire for harmonious relations between their empires. The painting represents a diplomatic ideal or a wish rather than a historical reality, commissioned by Jahangir to portray a desired relationship with the powerful Safavid ruler amidst political tensions over areas like Qandahar.
The Ottomans: Pilgrimage And Trade
Relations with Ottomans (Turkey) focused on ensuring free movement for merchants/pilgrims in Ottoman territories, especially Hijaz (Mecca, Medina). Mughal emperors combined religion/commerce: exporting merchandise to Red Sea ports (Aden, Mokha), distributing proceeds in charity there. Aurangzeb favoured distribution in India after finding misappropriation in Arabia.
Jesuits At The Mughal Court
European knowledge of India came from Jesuit missionaries, travelers, merchants, diplomats. Jesuit accounts are earliest European impressions of Mughal court.
After sea route discovery (late 15th century), Portuguese established trading stations. Portuguese king interested in propagating Christianity (Jesuits). Missions (16th century) linked to trade/empire building.
Akbar curious about Christianity, invited Jesuit priests from Goa. First mission reached Fatehpur Sikri (1580), stayed ~2 years, debated with ulama. Two more missions sent to Lahore (1591, 1595).
Jesuit accounts based on observation, shed light on emperor's character/mind. Assigned close to Akbar's throne, accompanied campaigns, tutored children, companions. Corroborate Persian chronicles on officials, life conditions.
Source 4: Monserrate (member of first Jesuit mission) on Akbar's accessibility.
Hard to exaggerate Akbar's accessibility to all seeking audience (common/nobles), creates opportunity almost daily. Pleasant-spoken/affable rather than severe. Remarkable effect of courtesy/affability attaching him to subjects' minds.
Answer:
Comparing this account with Source 2 (Abu’l Fazl's description of darbar): Both emphasize Akbar's accessibility to people of various classes (Source 2: "people of all classes receive notice," "all other men who have admittance"; Source 4: "accessible himself to all who wish audience of him," "any of the common people or of the nobles"). Source 2 describes the formal setting of the darbar, while Source 4 highlights the ease of access and the emperor's personal demeanor ("pleasant-spoken and affable rather than severe"). Both agree that this accessibility and demeanor were significant in shaping public perception and fostering loyalty. Source 4 particularly points out the "remarkable effect this courtesy and affability has in attaching him to the minds of his subjects," echoing Abu'l Fazl's implicit aim to portray the emperor in a favorable light that would promote acceptance of imperial authority.
Questioning Formal Religion
Akbar's respect for Jesuits impressed them; they saw it as acceptance of their faith, interpreting it through their lens of European religious intolerance. Monserrate noted Akbar cared little about violating religious norms by allowing freedom, seeing it as problematic from a rigid perspective.
Akbar's quest for religious knowledge led to interfaith debates in ibadat khana (Fatehpur Sikri) between scholars of various religions (Muslims, Hindus, Jainas, Parsis, Christians). His views evolved, moving from orthodox Islam towards an eclectic form of worship based on light/sun.
Akbar/Abu’l Fazl created a philosophy of light, shaping king's image/state ideology: divinely inspired sovereign with control over people/enemies. These ideas aligned with chroniclers portraying Mughal rulers effectively assimilating heterogeneous populace into empire. Dynasty's name retained legitimacy for centuries after power/extent diminished.
Hom in the haram: Excerpt from Abdul Qadir Badauni’s Muntakhab-ut Tawarikh.
Badauni (critic of Akbar) writes: From early youth, complimenting wives (daughters of Rajput Rajas), Akbar performed hom in haram (ceremony from fire-worship - atish-parasti). On New Year (1578), publicly prostrated before sun and fire. In evening, whole court rose respectfully when lamps/candles lit.
Answer:
This excerpt from Badauni, a critical historian, indicates that Akbar incorporated non-Islamic practices, specifically fire-worship (atish-parasti) rituals ("hom"), into his personal devotions within the imperial household (haram), influenced by his Rajput wives. His public prostration before the sun and fire and requiring the court to rise for the lighting of lamps also show adoption of practices associated with reverence for light and the sun, distinct from orthodox Islamic rituals. This account provides evidence of Akbar's eclectic religious inclinations and his deliberate efforts to integrate practices from different traditions, a key aspect of his sulh-i kul policy and personal spiritual quest, as observed and criticized by some contemporaries like Badauni who favored Islamic orthodoxy.
Timeline: Some Major Mughal Chronicles and Memoirs
Lists key Mughal historical texts and their approximate composition/publication dates.
Timeline: Landmarks in the History of the Mughal Empire
Lists major political events and reigns from Babur to Bahadur Shah II.
Answer in 100-150 words
Questions requiring short essay answers on aspects of Mughal chronicles, court life, administration, and religious policies, drawing on evidence from the chapter.
Write a short essay (about 250-300 words) on the following:
Questions requiring more detailed essay answers on distinctive features of chronicles, visual representations, Mughal nobility, and the ideal of kingship.
Map work
Map-based activity related to the Mughal Empire's political and cultural relations with other areas.
Project (choose one)
Suggestions for independent projects involving research on a Mughal chronicle or comparing the Mughal system with present-day government.
If you would like to know more, read:
Suggestions for further reading on the topic.
For more information, you could visit:
Suggestions for online resources.
Credits for Illustrations
List of sources for the images used in the chapter.